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Teacher or Tutor? For Some Kids, the Answer Is One and the Same
Written by Nancy Steinbach  

I’m Gwen Outen with the VOA Special English Education Report.

  
Teams of teachers and school administrators from at least fourteen American cities are at a conference in Washington.  The meeting through Sunday is a place to share ideas and discuss programs that could be copied.  The American Federation of Teachers, a labor union, holds the Quest conference every two years. 

This year, one of the subjects is a tutoring program that provides extra help to students in Rochester, New York.  The Rochester City School District was one of five in the nation recognized by the Bush administration for their tutoring programs.

Tutoring is big business in the United States these days.  There are private learning centers where parents can take their children after school.  Test preparation companies are also doing well.

One reason for all this tutoring is the growing competition for places at top universities.  Another influence is the Bush administration's federal education law, called No Child Left Behind.  The law requires services like free tutoring for poor students at schools that fail to meet educational goals for three years.  In some cases, tutoring may also be provided after two years of a lack of school progress.  

There is federal money to pay the tutors.  But the No Child Left Behind law does not say who must do the tutoring.  It can be a private company or local teachers.  The law does say, however, that the provider must have shown a record of effectiveness in helping students learn.

In Rochester, the tutoring is provided by a teachers union, the Rochester Teachers Association.  The program began in the spring of two thousand three with forty-seven students and fifteen tutors.  This year, eight hundred students received help from two hundred tutors.

Each tutor works with only four students.  The program is supervised at each school by a lead teacher who designs programs to meet student needs. 

The tutors are well paid.  And the program uses teachers from the schools that need to improve.  Critics in the private tutoring business question if that is such a good idea.  But the teachers say they know the students best.  And they say the difference is that each tutor works with only a few students, instead of big classes.

Now, members of the Rochester Teachers Association are tutoring educators from other cities to help them design similar programs.

This VOA Special English Education Report was written by Nancy Steinbach.  Our reports are all online at voaspecialenglish.com.  I'm Gwen Outen.

The Great Impeachment Trial of Andrew Johnson
Written by Frank Beardsley

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VOICE ONE:

THE MAKING OF A NATION -- a program in Special English.

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Andrew Johnson
After America's Civil War ended in eighteen sixty-five, tensions grew between Congress and the President.  Radical members of the Republican Party controlled Congress. They wanted strong policies to punish the southern states who left the Union and were defeated.  Standing in their way was President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat.

Johnson opposed radical efforts to force solutions on the south. He vetoed a number of radical programs.  He thought they interfered with rights given to the states by the Constitution.

I'm Harry Monroe. Today, Kay Gallant and I continue the story of President Andrew Johnson.

VOICE TWO:

In the congressional elections of eighteen sixty-six, radicals won firm control of both houses of Congress. They were able to pass a number of bills over the president's veto. But Johnson refused to stand aside in the face of radical attempts to seize all powers of government.

This conflict between Johnson and the Congress caused much bitterness. Finally, the radicals decided to get him out of the way. For the first time in American history, Congress would try to remove the President from office.

Under the United States Constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to bring charges against the president. The Senate acts as the jury to decide if the President is guilty of the charges. The Chief Justice of the United States serves as judge.

If two-thirds of the Senators find the President guilty, he can be removed from office.

VOICE ONE:

Radicals in the House of Representatives brought eleven charges against President Johnson.

Most of the charges were based on Johnson's removal from office of his Secretary of War.  Radicals charged that this violated a new law.  The law said the President could not remove a cabinet officer without approval by the Senate.

Johnson refused to recognize the law.  He said it was not constitutional.

Radicals in the House of Representatives also charged Johnson with criticizing Congress. They said his statements dishonored Congress and the presidency.

VOICE TWO:

The great impeachment trial began on March fifth, eighteen sixty-eight. The President refused to attend. But his lawyers were there to defend him.

One by one, the Senators swore an oath to be just. They promised to make a fair and honest decision on the guilt or innocence of Andrew Johnson.

A Congressman from Massachusetts opened the case for the radicals. He told the Senators not to think of themselves as members of any court. He said the Senate was a political body that was being asked to settle a political question. Was Johnson the right man for the White House.  He said it was clear that Johnson wanted to overthrow Congress.

Other radical Republicans then joined him in condemning Johnson. They made many charges. But they offered little evidence to support the charges.

VOICE ONE:

Johnson's lawyers called for facts, instead of emotion. They said the Constitution required the radicals to prove that the president had committed serious crimes. Andrew Johnson had committed no crime, they said. This was purely a political trial.

They warned of serious damage to the American form of government if the resident was removed for political reasons. No future president would be safe, they said, if opposed by a majority of the House and two-thirds of the Senate.

VOICE TWO:

The trial went on day after day. The decision would be close. Fifty-four Senators would be voting. Thirty-six votes of "guilty" were needed to remove the President from office.

It soon became clear that the radicals had thirty-five of these votes. Only seven Senators remained undecided. If one of the seven voted guilty, Johnson would be removed.

Radicals put great pressure on the seven men. They tried to buy their votes. Party leaders threatened them. Supporters in the Senators' home states were told to write hundreds of letters demanding that Johnson be found guilty.

VOICE ONE:

A Senator from Maine was one who felt the pressure. But he refused to let it force him to do what others wished. He answered one letter this way:

"Sir, I wish you and all my other friends to know that I, not they, am sitting in judgment upon the President. I, not they, have sworn to do impartial justice. I, not they, am responsible to God and man for my action and its results."

A Snator from Kansas was another who refused to let pressure decide his vote.  He said, "I trust that I shall have the courage to vote as I judge best."

VOICE TWO:

In the final days before the vote, six of the seven remaining Republican Senators let it be known that they would vote "not guilty."  But the Senator from Kansas still refused to say what his vote would be.  is was the only vote still in question. His vote would decide the issue.

Now, the pressure on him increased. His brother was offered twenty thousand dollars for information about how the Senator would vote. Everywhere he turned, he found someone demanding that he vote "guilty."

The vote took place on May sixteenth. Every seat in the big Senate room was filled. The Chief Justice began to call on the Senators.  One by one, they answered "guilty" or "not guilty." Finally, he called the name of the Senator from Kansas.

VOICE ONE:

The senator stood up. He looked about him. Every voice was still. Every eye was upon him.

"It was like looking down into an open grave," he said later. "Friendship, position, wealth -- everything that makes life desirable to an ambitious man -- were about to be swept away by my answer."

He spoke softly. Many could not hear him. The Chief Justice asked him to repeat his vote.  This time, the answer was clearly heard across the room: "not guilty."

VOICE TWO:

The trial was all but done. Remaining Senators voted as expected. The Chief justice announced the result. On the first charge, thirty-five Senators voted that President Johnson was guilty.  Nineteen voted that he was not guilty. The radicals had failed by
one vote.

When the Senate voted on the other charges, the result was the same. The radicals could not get the two-thirds majority they needed. President Johnson was declared "not guilty."

VOICE ONE:

Radical leaders and newspapers bitterly denounced the small group of Republican Senators who refused to vote guilty. They called them traitors. Friends and supporters condemned them. None was re-elected to the Senate or to any other government
office.

It was a heavy price to pay.  And yet, they were sure they had done the right thing. The Senator from Kansas told his wife, "The millions of men cursing me today will bless me tomorrow for having saved the country from the greatest threat it ever faced."

VOICE TWO:

He was right. The trial of Andrew Johnson was an important turning-point in the making of the American nation.

His removal from office would have established the idea that the President could serve only with the approval of Congress. The President would have become, in effect, a Prime Minister.  He would have to depend on the support of Congress to remain
in office.  Johnson's victory kept alive the idea of an independent presidency.

However, the vote did not end the conflict between Congress and the White House over the future of the south. That will be our story in the next program of THE MAKING OF A NATION.

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VOICE ONE:

You have been listening to the Special English program, THE MAKING OF A NATION. Your narrators were Harry Monroe and Kay Gallant. Our program was written by David Jarmul and Frank Beardsley.

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